# Types & Typeclasses

Haskell is a strongly, statically typed programming language, which helps prevent us from writing bad programs.

• Java, C, Rust - strongly typed
• Python, Ruby - dynamically typed

Types have many benefits:

• Describe the value of an expression
• Prevent us from doing silly things
• not 7 gives Type Error
• Good for documentation
• Type errors occur at compile time

GHC checks types and infers the type of expressions for us. Types are discarded after type checking, and are not available at runtime.

## Type notation

We say an expression has a type by writing expression :: type, read as "expression has type".

• If we can assign a type to an expression, it is "well typed"
• A type approximates and describes the value of an expression.
42 :: Int
True :: Bool
'c' :: Char
"Cake" :: String
0.5 :: Double
4 + 8 :: Int
2 * 9 + 3 :: Int
True && False :: Bool
"AB" ++ "CD" :: String
even 9 :: Bool


Before writing a definition, it is good practice to write its type.

daysPerWeek :: Int
daysperWeek = 7


### Function Types

The types of functions are denoted using arrows ->. The not function is defined as not :: Bool -> Bool, read "not has type bool to bool". It means if you give me a Bool, I will give you back another Bool.

The definition of the not function is shown below.

not :: Bool -> Bool
not True = False
not False = True
not True :: Bool


The last line shows how function application eliminates function types, as by applying a function to a value, one of the types from the function definition is removed as it has already been applied.

The xor function takes two boolean arguments and is defined:

xor :: Bool -> Bool -> Bool
xor False True = True
xor False False = False
xor True True = False
xor True False = True


Applying one argument to a function that takes two is called partial function application, as it partially applies arguments to a function to return another function. This is because all functions in haskell are curried, meaning all functions actually only take one argument, and functions taking more than one argument are constructed from applying multiple functions with one argument.

xor :: Bool -> Bool -> Bool
xor True :: Bool -> Bool -- partially applied function
xor True False :: Bool


## Polymorphic Types

What is the type of \x -> x ? Could be:

f :: Int -> Int
f :: Bool -> Bool
f :: Char -> Char


These are all permissible types. To save redifining a function, we can use type variables. Anything with a single lowercase character is a type variable (a in this case).

\x -> x :: a -> a


\x -> x is the identity function, as it returns its argument unchanged. We can also have functions with more than one type variable, to specify that arguments have different types:

const :: a -> b -> a
const x y = x


## Tuples

Tuples are a useful data structure

(4, 7) :: (Int, Int)
(4, 7.0) :: (Int, Double)
('a', 9, "Hello") :: (Char, Int, String)

--can nest tuples
((4, 'g'), False) :: ((Int, Char), Bool)

--can also contain functions
(\x -> x, 8.15) :: (a->a, Double)


Functions on pairs. These are all in the standard library

fst :: (a,b) -> a
snd :: (a,b) -> b
swap :: (a,b) -> (b,a)

-- these functions can also be defined by pattern matching
fst (x,y) = x
snd (x,y) = y
swap (x,y) = (y,x)


## Type Classes

• The (+) operator probably has type (+) :: Int -> Int -> Int,
• This is correct, as this typing is permissible
• What about 1.2 + 3.4?
• Will raise an error with this definition of (+)
• Can polymorphism help?
• (+) :: a -> a -> a
• This is stupid
• Allows any types
• Won't work
• A type class constraint is needed
• The actual type is (+) :: Num a => a -> a -> a
• The Num a => part is the constraint part
• Tells the compiler that a has to belong to the typeclass Num
• Type class constraints are used to constrain type variables to only types which support the functions or operators specified by the type class
• Num is a type class that represents all types which support arithmetic operations

### Defining Type Classes

A type class is defined as follows:

class Num a where
(+) :: a -> a -> a
(-) :: a -> a -> a
abs :: a -> a

• Num is the name of the type class
• a is the type variable representing it in the method typings
• The type class contains method signatures for all functions that members of the type class must implement

The type class contains type definitions, but no implementations for the functions. To implement them, we need to tell the compiler which types implement the type class and how they implement the functions in the type class. The Show typeclass tells the compiler that a type can be converted to a string.

-- typeclass definition
class Show a where
show :: a -> String

-- instance of typeclass for bool type
instance Show Bool where
show True = "True"
show False = "False"


The instance definition tells the compiler that Bool is a member of Show, and how it implements the functions that Show defines.

### Prelude Type Classes

• Num for numbers
• Eq for equality operators == /=
• Ord for inequality/comparison operators > <= etc
• Show for converting things to string
• Many More

The REPL makes extensive use of Show to print things. There are no show instances for function types, so you get an error if you try to Show functions. Typing :i in the REPL gets info on a type class. :i Num gives:

class Num a where
(+) :: a -> a -> a
(-) :: a -> a -> a
(*) :: a -> a -> a
negate :: a -> a
abs :: a -> a
signum :: a -> a
fromInteger :: Integer -> a
{-# MINIMAL (+), (*), abs, signum, fromInteger, (negate | (-)) #-}
-- Defined in ‘GHC.Num’
instance Num Word -- Defined in ‘GHC.Num’
instance Num Integer -- Defined in ‘GHC.Num’
instance Num Int -- Defined in ‘GHC.Num’
instance Num Float -- Defined in ‘GHC.Float’
instance Num Double -- Defined in ‘GHC.Float’


### Types of Polymorphism

In Java, there are two kinds of polymorphism:

• Parametric polymorphism
• (Generics/Templates)
• A class is generic over certain types
• Can put whatever type you like in there to make a concrete class of that type
• Subtype polymorphism
• Can do class Duck extends Bird
• Can put Ducks wherever Birds are expected

Haskell has two kinds of polymorphism also:

• Parametric polymorphism
• Type variables
• id :: a -> a
• Can accept any type where a is
• Uses type classes
• double :: Num a => a -> a
• double x = x * 2

### Further Uses of Constraints

An example Show instance for pairs:

instance (Show a, Show b) => Show (a,b) Show where
show (x,y) = "(" ++ show x ++ ", " ++ show y ++ ")"


The (Show a, Show b) =>  defines a constraint on a and b that they must both be instances of show for them to be used with this instance. The instance is actually defined on the type (a,b).

Can also define that a typeclass has a superclass, meaning that for a type to be an instance of a typeclass, it must be an instance of some other typeclass first. The Ord typeclass has a superclass constraint of the Eq typeclass, meaning something cant be Ord without it first being Eq. This makes sense, as you can't have an ordering without first some notion of equality.

class Eq a => Ord a where
(<) :: a -> a -> Bool
(<=) :: a -> a -> Bool


### Default Implementations

Type classes can provide default method implementations. For example, (<=) can be defined using the definition of (<), so a default one can be provided using (==)

class Eq a => Ord a where
(<) :: a -> a -> Bool
(<=) :: a -> a -> Bool
(<=) x y = x < y || x == y
-- or defined infix
x <= y = x < y || x == y


### Derivable Type Classes

Writing type class instances can be tedious. Can use the deriving keyword to automatically generate them, which does the same as manually defining type class instances.

data Bool = False | True
deriving Eq
data Module = CS141 | CS118 | CS126
deriving (Eq, Ord, Show)


Certain other typeclasses can be dervied too, by enabling language extensions within GHC. The extension XDeriveFunctor allows for types to include a deriving Functor statement.

## Data Types

How do we make our own data types in haskell? Algebraic data types.

• Bool is a type
• There are two values of type Bool
• True
• False
data Bool = True | False


A type definition consists of the type name Bool and it's data constructors, or values True | False. A type definition introduces data constructors into scope, which are just functions.

True :: Bool
False :: Bool


We can pattern match on data constructors, and also use them as values. This is true for all types.

not :: Bool -> Bool
not True = False
not False = True


More examples:

data Module = CS141 | CS256 | CS263

data Language = PHP | Java | Haskell | CPP

--for this one, the type name and constructor name are separate names in the namespace
data Unit = Unit

-- this one has no values
data Void


### Parametrised Data Constructors

Parameters can be added to a data constructor by adding their types after the constructor's name. The example below defines a type to represent shapes. Remember that data constructors are just functions, and can be partially applied just like other functions.

data Shape = Rect Double Double | Circle Double
Rect :: Double -> Double -> Shape
Circle :: Double -> Shape

-- functions utilising the Shape type

-- constructs a square
square x :: Double -> Shape
square x = Rect x x

-- calculates area of a shape using pattern matching on constructors
area :: Shape -> Double
area (Rect w h) = w * h
area (Circle r) = pi * r * r

isLine :: Shape -> Bool#
isLine (Rect 1 h) = True
isLine (Rect w 1) = True
isLine _ = False

-- examples
area (square 4.0)
=> area (Rect 4.0 4.0)
=> 4.0 * 4.0
=> 16.0

area (Circle 5.0)
=> pi * 5.0 * 5.0
=> pi * 25.0
=> 78.53981...



### Parametrised Data Types

The Maybe type is an example of a data type parametrised over some type variable a. It exists within the standard library, defined as data Maybe a = Nothing | Just a. This type is used to show that either there is no result, or some type a.

A function using the Maybe type to perform devision safely, returning Nothing if the divisor is 0, and the result wrapped in a Just if the division can be done.

data Maybe a = Nothing | Just a

safediv :: Int -> Int -> Maybe Int
safediv x 0 = Nothing
safediv x y = Just (x div y)
-- safediv 8 0 => Nothing
-- safediv 8 4 = Just (8 div 4) = Just 2

-- this is included in stdlib for extracting the value using pattern matching
fromMaybe :: a -> Maybe a -> a
fromMaybe x Nothing = x
fromMaybe _ (Just x) = x


Null references were invented in the 1960s ... the guy who invented them called them his "billion dollar mistake". The Maybe type is a good alternative, which makes it clear that a value may be absent. Similar concepts exist in other procedural languages (Swift, Rust)

### Recursive Data Types

In Haskell, data types can be defined in terms of themselves. An example definition of the natural numbers is shown below, where a number is either zero, or one plus another number.

data Nat = Zero | Succ Nat

Zero :: Nat
Succ :: Nat -> Nat

one = Succ Zero
two = Succ one
three = Succ two

add :: Nat -> Nat -> Nat

mul :: Nat -> Nat -> Nat
mul Zero     m = Zero
mul (Succ n) m = add m (mul n m)


Another example defining binary trees in terms of themselves. A binary tree consists of subtrees (smaller binary trees). This type is parametrised over some type variable a also.

Data BinTree a = Leaf a | Node (BinTree a) (BinTree a)

--converts a binary tree to a list
flatten :: BinTree a -> [a]
flatten (Leaf x)   = [x]
flatten (Node l r) = flatten l ++ flatten r

-- computes the max depth of the tree
depth :: BinTree a -> Int
depth (Leaf _)   = 1
depth (Node l r) = 1 + max (depth l) (depth r)


## Type Aliases

Types can be aliased. For example, String has been an alias of [Char] all along.

type String = [Char]


Another example, defining a Predicate type

type Predicate a = a -> Bool

isEven :: Predicate Int
isEven n = n mod 2 == 0

isEven' :: (Eq a, Integral a) => Predicate a
isEven' n = n mod 2 == 0
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